@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1990--1994, 1998, 2001--2025 Free Software Foundation,
@c Inc.
@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
@node Evaluation
@chapter Evaluation
@cindex evaluation
@cindex  interpreter
@cindex interpreter
@cindex value of expression

  The @dfn{evaluation} of expressions in Emacs Lisp is performed by the
@dfn{Lisp interpreter}---a program that receives a Lisp object as input
and computes its @dfn{value as an expression}.  How it does this depends
on the data type of the object, according to rules described in this
chapter.  The interpreter runs automatically to evaluate portions of
your program, but can also be called explicitly via the Lisp primitive
function @code{eval}.

@ifnottex
@menu
* Intro Eval::     Evaluation in the scheme of things.
* Forms::          How various sorts of objects are evaluated.
* Quoting::        Avoiding evaluation (to put constants in the program).
* Backquote::      Easier construction of list structure.
* Eval::           How to invoke the Lisp interpreter explicitly.
* Deferred Eval::  Deferred and lazy evaluation of forms.
@end menu

@node Intro Eval
@section Introduction to Evaluation

  The Lisp interpreter, or evaluator, is the part of Emacs that
computes the value of an expression that is given to it.  When a
function written in Lisp is called, the evaluator computes the value
of the function by evaluating the expressions in the function body.
Thus, running any Lisp program really means running the Lisp
interpreter.
@end ifnottex

@cindex form
@cindex expression
@cindex S-expression
@cindex sexp
  A Lisp object that is intended for evaluation is called a @dfn{form}
or @dfn{expression}@footnote{It is sometimes also referred to as an
@dfn{S-expression} or @dfn{sexp}, but we generally do not use this
terminology in this manual.}.  The fact that forms are data objects
and not merely text is one of the fundamental differences between
Lisp-like languages and typical programming languages.  Any object can
be evaluated, but in practice only numbers, symbols, lists and strings
are evaluated very often.

  In subsequent sections, we will describe the details of what
evaluation means for each kind of form.

  It is very common to read a Lisp form and then evaluate the form,
but reading and evaluation are separate activities, and either can be
performed alone.  Reading per se does not evaluate anything; it
converts the printed representation of a Lisp object to the object
itself.  It is up to the caller of @code{read} to specify whether this
object is a form to be evaluated, or serves some entirely different
purpose.  @xref{Input Functions}.

@cindex recursive evaluation
  Evaluation is a recursive process, and evaluating a form often
involves evaluating parts within that form.  For instance, when you
evaluate a @dfn{function call} form such as @code{(car x)}, Emacs
first evaluates the argument (the subform @code{x}).  After evaluating
the argument, Emacs @dfn{executes} the function (@code{car}), and if
the function is written in Lisp, execution works by evaluating the
@dfn{body} of the function (in this example, however, @code{car} is
not a Lisp function; it is a primitive function implemented in C).
@xref{Functions}, for more information about functions and function
calls.

@cindex environment
  Evaluation takes place in a context called the @dfn{environment},
which consists of the current values and bindings of all Lisp
variables (@pxref{Variables}).@footnote{This definition of
``environment'' is specifically not intended to include all the data
that can affect the result of a program.}  Whenever a form refers to a
variable without creating a new binding for it, the variable evaluates
to the value given by the current environment.  Evaluating a form may
also temporarily alter the environment by binding variables
(@pxref{Local Variables}).

@cindex side effect
@anchor{Definition of side effect}
  Evaluating a form may also make changes that persist; these changes
are called @dfn{side effects}.  An example of a form that produces a
side effect is @code{(setq foo 1)}.

  Do not confuse evaluation with command key interpretation.  The
editor command loop translates keyboard input into a command (an
interactively callable function) using the active keymaps, and then
uses @code{call-interactively} to execute that command.  Executing the
command usually involves evaluation, if the command is written in
Lisp; however, this step is not considered a part of command key
interpretation.  @xref{Command Loop}.

@node Forms
@section Kinds of Forms

  A Lisp object that is intended to be evaluated is called a
@dfn{form} (or an @dfn{expression}).  How Emacs evaluates a form
depends on its data type.  Emacs has three different kinds of form
that are evaluated differently: symbols, lists, and all other
types.  This section describes all three kinds, one by one, starting
with the other types, which are self-evaluating forms.

@menu
* Self-Evaluating Forms::   Forms that evaluate to themselves.
* Symbol Forms::            Symbols evaluate as variables.
* Classifying Lists::       How to distinguish various sorts of list forms.
* Function Indirection::    When a symbol appears as the car of a list,
                              we find the real function via the symbol.
* Function Forms::          Forms that call functions.
* Macro Forms::             Forms that call macros.
* Special Forms::           Special forms are idiosyncratic primitives,
                              most of them extremely important.
* Autoloading::             Functions set up to load files
                              containing their real definitions.
@end menu

@node Self-Evaluating Forms
@subsection Self-Evaluating Forms
@cindex vector evaluation
@cindex literal evaluation
@cindex self-evaluating form
@cindex form, self-evaluating

  A @dfn{self-evaluating form} is any form that is not a list or
symbol.  Self-evaluating forms evaluate to themselves: the result of
evaluation is the same object that was evaluated.  Thus, the number 25
evaluates to 25, and the string @code{"foo"} evaluates to the string
@code{"foo"}.  Likewise, evaluating a vector does not cause evaluation
of the elements of the vector---it returns the same vector with its
contents unchanged.

@example
@group
'123               ; @r{A number, shown without evaluation.}
     @result{} 123
@end group
@group
123                ; @r{Evaluated as usual---result is the same.}
     @result{} 123
@end group
@group
(eval '123)        ; @r{Evaluated "by hand"---result is the same.}
     @result{} 123
@end group
@group
(eval (eval '123)) ; @r{Evaluating twice changes nothing.}
     @result{} 123
@end group
@end example

  A self-evaluating form yields a value that becomes part of the program,
and you should not try to modify it via @code{setcar}, @code{aset} or
similar operations.  The Lisp interpreter might unify the constants
yielded by your program's self-evaluating forms, so that these
constants might share structure.  @xref{Mutability}.

  It is common to write numbers, characters, strings, and even vectors
in Lisp code, taking advantage of the fact that they self-evaluate.
However, it is quite unusual to do this for types that lack a read
syntax, because there's no way to write them textually.  It is possible
to construct Lisp expressions containing these types by means of a Lisp
program.  Here is an example:

@example
@group
;; @r{Build an expression containing a buffer object.}
(setq print-exp (list 'print (current-buffer)))
     @result{} (print #<buffer eval.texi>)
@end group
@group
;; @r{Evaluate it.}
(eval print-exp)
     @print{} #<buffer eval.texi>
     @result{} #<buffer eval.texi>
@end group
@end example

@node Symbol Forms
@subsection Symbol Forms
@cindex symbol evaluation
@cindex symbol forms
@cindex forms, symbol

  When a symbol is evaluated, it is treated as a variable.  The result
is the variable's value, if it has one.  If the symbol has no value as
a variable, the Lisp interpreter signals an error.  For more
information on the use of variables, see @ref{Variables}.

  In the following example, we set the value of a symbol with
@code{setq}.  Then we evaluate the symbol, and get back the value that
@code{setq} stored.

@example
@group
(setq a 123)
     @result{} 123
@end group
@group
(eval 'a)
     @result{} 123
@end group
@group
a
     @result{} 123
@end group
@end example

  The symbols @code{nil} and @code{t} are treated specially, so that the
value of @code{nil} is always @code{nil}, and the value of @code{t} is
always @code{t}; you cannot set or bind them to any other values.  Thus,
these two symbols act like self-evaluating forms, even though
@code{eval} treats them like any other symbol.  A symbol whose name
starts with @samp{:} also self-evaluates in the same way; likewise,
its value ordinarily cannot be changed.  @xref{Constant Variables}.

@node Classifying Lists
@subsection Classification of List Forms
@cindex list form evaluation
@cindex forms, list

  A form that is a nonempty list is either a function call, a macro
call, or a special form, according to its first element.  These three
kinds of forms are evaluated in different ways, described below.  The
remaining list elements constitute the @dfn{arguments} for the function,
macro, or special form.

  The first step in evaluating a nonempty list is to examine its first
element.  This element alone determines what kind of form the list is
and how the rest of the list is to be processed.  The first element is
@emph{not} evaluated, as it would be in some Lisp dialects such as
Scheme.

@node Function Indirection
@subsection Symbol Function Indirection
@cindex symbol function indirection
@cindex indirection for functions
@cindex void function

  If the first element of the list is a symbol then evaluation
examines the symbol's function cell, and uses its contents instead of
the original symbol.  If the contents are another symbol, this
process, called @dfn{symbol function indirection}, is repeated until
it obtains a non-symbol.  @xref{Function Names}, for more information
about symbol function indirection.
We eventually obtain a non-symbol, which ought to be a function or
other suitable object.

@kindex invalid-function
  More precisely, we should now have a Lisp function (a lambda
expression), a byte-code function, a primitive function, a Lisp macro,
a special form, or an autoload object.  Each of these types is a case
described in one of the following sections.  If the object is not one
of these types, Emacs signals an @code{invalid-function} error.

  The following example illustrates the symbol indirection process.
We use @code{fset} to set the function cell of a symbol and
@code{symbol-function} to get the function cell contents
(@pxref{Function Cells}).  Specifically, we store the symbol
@code{car} into the function cell of @code{first}, and the symbol
@code{first} into the function cell of @code{erste}.

@example
@group
;; @r{Build this function cell linkage:}
;;   -------------       -----        -------        -------
;;  | #<subr car> | <-- | car |  <-- | first |  <-- | erste |
;;   -------------       -----        -------        -------
@end group
@group
(symbol-function 'car)
     @result{} #<subr car>
@end group
@group
(fset 'first 'car)
     @result{} car
@end group
@group
(fset 'erste 'first)
     @result{} first
@end group
@group
(erste '(1 2 3))   ; @r{Call the function referenced by @code{erste}.}
     @result{} 1
@end group
@end example

  By contrast, the following example calls a function without any symbol
function indirection, because the first element is an anonymous Lisp
function, not a symbol.

@example
@group
((lambda (arg) (erste arg))
 '(1 2 3))
     @result{} 1
@end group
@end example

@noindent
Executing the function itself evaluates its body; this does involve
symbol function indirection when calling @code{erste}.

  This form is rarely used and is now deprecated.  Instead, you should write it
as:

@example
@group
(funcall (lambda (arg) (erste arg))
         '(1 2 3))
@end group
@end example
or just
@example
@group
(let ((arg '(1 2 3))) (erste arg))
@end group
@end example

  The built-in function @code{indirect-function} provides an easy way to
perform symbol function indirection explicitly.

@defun indirect-function function
@anchor{Definition of indirect-function}
This function returns the meaning of @var{function} as a function.  If
@var{function} is a symbol, then it finds @var{function}'s function
definition and starts over with that value.  If @var{function} is not a
symbol, then it returns @var{function} itself.

This function returns @code{nil} if the final symbol is unbound.

There is also a second, optional argument that is obsolete and has no
effect.

Here is how you could define @code{indirect-function} in Lisp:

@example
(defun indirect-function (function)
  (if (and function
           (symbolp function))
      (indirect-function (symbol-function function))
    function))
@end example
@end defun

@node Function Forms
@subsection Evaluation of Function Forms
@cindex function form evaluation
@cindex function call
@cindex forms, function call

  If the first element of a list being evaluated is a Lisp function
object, byte-code object or primitive function object, then that list is
a @dfn{function call}.  For example, here is a call to the function
@code{+}:

@example
(+ 1 x)
@end example

  The first step in evaluating a function call is to evaluate the
remaining elements of the list from left to right.  The results are the
actual argument values, one value for each list element.  The next step
is to call the function with this list of arguments, effectively using
the function @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}).  If the function
is written in Lisp, the arguments are used to bind the argument
variables of the function (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}); then the forms
in the function body are evaluated in order, and the value of the last
body form becomes the value of the function call.

@node Macro Forms
@subsection Lisp Macro Evaluation
@cindex macro call evaluation
@cindex forms, macro call

  If the first element of a list being evaluated is a macro object, then
the list is a @dfn{macro call}.  When a macro call is evaluated, the
elements of the rest of the list are @emph{not} initially evaluated.
Instead, these elements themselves are used as the arguments of the
macro.  The macro definition computes a replacement form, called the
@dfn{expansion} of the macro, to be evaluated in place of the original
form.  The expansion may be any sort of form: a self-evaluating
constant, a symbol, or a list.  If the expansion is itself a macro call,
this process of expansion repeats until some other sort of form results.

  Ordinary evaluation of a macro call finishes by evaluating the
expansion.  However, the macro expansion is not necessarily evaluated
right away, or at all, because other programs also expand macro calls,
and they may or may not evaluate the expansions.

  Normally, the argument expressions are not evaluated as part of
computing the macro expansion, but instead appear as part of the
expansion, so they are computed when the expansion is evaluated.

  For example, given a macro defined as follows:

@example
@group
(defmacro cadr (x)
  (list 'car (list 'cdr x)))
@end group
@end example

@noindent
an expression such as @code{(cadr (assq 'handler list))} is a macro
call, and its expansion is:

@example
(car (cdr (assq 'handler list)))
@end example

@noindent
Note that the argument @code{(assq 'handler list)} appears in the
expansion.

@xref{Macros}, for a complete description of Emacs Lisp macros.

@node Special Forms
@subsection Special Forms
@cindex special forms
@cindex forms, special
@cindex evaluation of special forms

  A @dfn{special form} is a primitive specially marked so that
its arguments are not all evaluated.  Most special forms define control
structures or perform variable bindings---things which functions cannot
do.

  Each special form has its own rules for which arguments are evaluated
and which are used without evaluation.  Whether a particular argument is
evaluated may depend on the results of evaluating other arguments.

  If an expression's first symbol is that of a special form, the
expression should follow the rules of that special form; otherwise,
Emacs's behavior is not well-defined (though it will not crash).  For
example, @code{((lambda (x) x . 3) 4)} contains a subexpression that
begins with @code{lambda} but is not a well-formed @code{lambda}
expression, so Emacs may signal an error, or may return 3 or 4 or
@code{nil}, or may behave in other ways.

@defun special-form-p object
This predicate tests whether its argument is a special form, and
returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
@end defun

  Here is a list, in alphabetical order, of all of the special forms in
Emacs Lisp with a reference to where each is described.

@table @code
@item and
@pxref{Combining Conditions}

@item catch
@pxref{Catch and Throw}

@item cond
@pxref{Conditionals}

@item condition-case
@pxref{Handling Errors}

@item defconst
@pxref{Defining Variables}

@item defvar
@pxref{Defining Variables}

@item function
@pxref{Anonymous Functions}

@item if
@pxref{Conditionals}

@item interactive
@pxref{Interactive Call}

@item lambda
@pxref{Lambda Expressions}

@item let
@itemx let*
@pxref{Local Variables}

@item or
@pxref{Combining Conditions}

@item prog1
@itemx prog2
@itemx progn
@pxref{Sequencing}

@item quote
@pxref{Quoting}

@item save-current-buffer
@pxref{Current Buffer}

@item save-excursion
@pxref{Excursions}

@item save-restriction
@pxref{Narrowing}

@item setq
@pxref{Setting Variables}

@item setq-default
@pxref{Creating Buffer-Local}

@item unwind-protect
@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}

@item while
@pxref{Iteration}
@end table

@cindex CL note---special forms compared
@quotation
@b{Common Lisp note:} Here are some comparisons of special forms in
GNU Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp.  @code{setq}, @code{if}, and
@code{catch} are special forms in both Emacs Lisp and Common Lisp.
@code{save-excursion} is a special form in Emacs Lisp, but
doesn't exist in Common Lisp.  @code{throw} is a special form in
Common Lisp (because it must be able to throw multiple values), but it
is a function in Emacs Lisp (which doesn't have multiple
values).
@end quotation

@node Autoloading
@subsection Autoloading

  The @dfn{autoload} feature allows you to call a function or macro
whose function definition has not yet been loaded into Emacs.  It
specifies which file contains the definition.  When an autoload object
appears as a symbol's function definition, calling that symbol as a
function automatically loads the specified file; then it calls the
real definition loaded from that file.  The way to arrange for an
autoload object to appear as a symbol's function definition is
described in @ref{Autoload}.

@node Quoting
@section Quoting
@cindex forms, quote

  The special form @code{quote} returns its single argument, as written,
without evaluating it.  This provides a way to include constant symbols
and lists, which are not self-evaluating objects, in a program.  (It is
not necessary to quote self-evaluating objects such as numbers, strings,
and vectors.)

@defspec quote object
This special form returns @var{object}, without evaluating it.
The returned value might be shared and should not be modified.
@xref{Self-Evaluating Forms}.
@end defspec

@cindex @samp{'} for quoting
@cindex quoting using apostrophe
@cindex apostrophe for quoting
Because @code{quote} is used so often in programs, Lisp provides a
convenient read syntax for it.  An apostrophe character (@samp{'})
followed by a Lisp object (in read syntax) expands to a list whose first
element is @code{quote}, and whose second element is the object.  Thus,
the read syntax @code{'x} is an abbreviation for @code{(quote x)}.

Here are some examples of expressions that use @code{quote}:

@example
@group
(quote (+ 1 2))
     @result{} (+ 1 2)
@end group
@group
(quote foo)
     @result{} foo
@end group
@group
'foo
     @result{} foo
@end group
@group
''foo
     @result{} 'foo
@end group
@group
'(quote foo)
     @result{} 'foo
@end group
@group
['foo]
     @result{} ['foo]
@end group
@end example

  Although the expressions @code{(list '+ 1 2)} and @code{'(+ 1 2)}
both yield lists equal to @code{(+ 1 2)}, the former yields a
freshly-minted mutable list whereas the latter yields a list
built from conses that might be shared and should not be modified.
@xref{Self-Evaluating Forms}.

  Other quoting constructs include @code{function} (@pxref{Anonymous
Functions}), which causes an anonymous lambda expression written in Lisp
to be compiled, and @samp{`} (@pxref{Backquote}), which is used to quote
only part of a list, while computing and substituting other parts.

@node Backquote
@section Backquote
@cindex backquote (list substitution)
@cindex ` (list substitution)
@findex `
@cindex forms, backquote

  @dfn{Backquote constructs} allow you to quote a list, but
selectively evaluate elements of that list.  In the simplest case, it
is identical to the special form
@iftex
@code{quote}.
@end iftex
@ifnottex
@code{quote}
(described in the previous section; @pxref{Quoting}).
@end ifnottex
For example, these two forms yield identical results:

@example
@group
`(a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
     @result{} (a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
@end group
@group
'(a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
     @result{} (a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
@end group
@end example

@findex , @r{(with backquote)}
  The special marker @samp{,} inside of the argument to backquote
indicates a value that isn't constant.  The Emacs Lisp evaluator
evaluates the argument of @samp{,}, and puts the value in the list
structure:

@example
@group
`(a list of ,(+ 2 3) elements)
     @result{} (a list of 5 elements)
@end group
@end example

@noindent
Substitution with @samp{,} is allowed at deeper levels of the list
structure also.  For example:

@example
@group
`(1 2 (3 ,(+ 4 5)))
     @result{} (1 2 (3 9))
@end group
@end example

@findex ,@@ @r{(with backquote)}
@cindex splicing (with backquote)
  You can also @dfn{splice} an evaluated value into the resulting list,
using the special marker @samp{,@@}.  The elements of the spliced list
become elements at the same level as the other elements of the resulting
list.  The equivalent code without using @samp{`} is often unreadable.
Here are some examples:

@example
@group
(setq some-list '(2 3))
     @result{} (2 3)
@end group
@group
(cons 1 (append some-list '(4) some-list))
     @result{} (1 2 3 4 2 3)
@end group
@group
`(1 ,@@some-list 4 ,@@some-list)
     @result{} (1 2 3 4 2 3)
@end group

@group
(setq list '(hack foo bar))
     @result{} (hack foo bar)
@end group
@group
(cons 'use
  (cons 'the
    (cons 'words (append (cdr list) '(as elements)))))
     @result{} (use the words foo bar as elements)
@end group
@group
`(use the words ,@@(cdr list) as elements)
     @result{} (use the words foo bar as elements)
@end group
@end example

A backquote construct acts like @code{quote} in that it yields conses,
vectors and strings that might be shared and should not be modified.
@xref{Self-Evaluating Forms}.

@node Eval
@section Eval

  Most often, forms are evaluated automatically, by virtue of their
occurrence in a program being run.  On rare occasions, you may need to
write code that evaluates a form that is computed at run time, such as
after reading a form from text being edited or getting one from a
property list.  On these occasions, use the @code{eval} function.
Often @code{eval} is not needed and something else should be used instead.
For example, to get the value of a variable, while @code{eval} works,
@code{symbol-value} is preferable; or rather than store expressions
in a property list that then need to go through @code{eval}, it is better to
store functions instead that are then passed to @code{funcall}.

  The functions and variables described in this section evaluate forms,
specify limits to the evaluation process, or record recently returned
values.  Loading a file also does evaluation (@pxref{Loading}).

  It is generally cleaner and more flexible to store a function in a
data structure, and call it with @code{funcall} or @code{apply}, than
to store an expression in the data structure and evaluate it.  Using
functions provides the ability to pass information to them as
arguments.

@defun eval form &optional lexical
This is the basic function for evaluating an expression.  It evaluates
@var{form} in the current environment, and returns the result.  The
type of the @var{form} object determines how it is evaluated.
@xref{Forms}.

The argument @var{lexical} specifies the scoping rule for local
variables (@pxref{Variable Scoping}).  If it is @code{t}, that means
to evaluate @var{form} using lexical scoping; this is the recommended
value.  If it is omitted or @code{nil}, that means to use the old
dynamic-only variable scoping rule.

The value of @var{lexical} can also be a non-empty list specifying a
particular @dfn{lexical environment} for lexical bindings; however,
this feature is only useful for specialized purposes, such as in Emacs
Lisp debuggers.  Each member of the list is either a cons cell which
represents a lexical symbol-value pair, or a symbol representing a
(special) variable that would use dynamic scoping if bound.

Since @code{eval} is a function, the argument expression that appears
in a call to @code{eval} is evaluated twice: once as preparation before
@code{eval} is called, and again by the @code{eval} function itself.
Here is an example:

@example
@group
(setq foo 'bar)
     @result{} bar
@end group
@group
(setq bar 'baz)
     @result{} baz
;; @r{Here @code{eval} receives argument @code{foo}}
(eval 'foo)
     @result{} bar
;; @r{Here @code{eval} receives argument @code{bar}, which is the value of @code{foo}}
(eval foo)
     @result{} baz
@end group
@end example

The number of currently active calls to @code{eval} is limited to
@code{max-lisp-eval-depth} (see below).
@end defun

@deffn Command eval-region start end &optional stream read-function
@anchor{Definition of eval-region}
This function evaluates the forms in the current buffer in the region
defined by the positions @var{start} and @var{end}.  It reads forms from
the region and calls @code{eval} on them until the end of the region is
reached, or until an error is signaled and not handled.

By default, @code{eval-region} does not produce any output.  However,
if @var{stream} is non-@code{nil}, any output produced by output
functions (@pxref{Output Functions}), as well as the values that
result from evaluating the expressions in the region are printed using
@var{stream}.  @xref{Output Streams}.

If @var{read-function} is non-@code{nil}, it should be a function,
which is used instead of @code{read} to read expressions one by one.
This function is called with one argument, the stream for reading
input.  You can also use the variable @code{load-read-function}
(@pxref{Definition of load-read-function,, How Programs Do Loading})
to specify this function, but it is more robust to use the
@var{read-function} argument.

@code{eval-region} does not move point.  It always returns @code{nil}.
@end deffn

@cindex evaluation of buffer contents
@deffn Command eval-buffer &optional buffer-or-name stream filename unibyte print
This is similar to @code{eval-region}, but the arguments provide
different optional features.  @code{eval-buffer} operates on the
entire accessible portion of buffer @var{buffer-or-name}
(@pxref{Narrowing,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}).
@var{buffer-or-name} can be a buffer, a buffer name (a string), or
@code{nil} (or omitted), which means to use the current buffer.
@var{stream} is used as in @code{eval-region}, unless @var{stream} is
@code{nil} and @var{print} non-@code{nil}.  In that case, values that
result from evaluating the expressions are still discarded, but the
output of the output functions is printed in the echo area.
@var{filename} is the file name to use for @code{load-history}
(@pxref{Unloading}), and defaults to @code{buffer-file-name}
(@pxref{Buffer File Name}).  If @var{unibyte} is non-@code{nil},
@code{read} converts strings to unibyte whenever possible.
@end deffn

@defopt max-lisp-eval-depth
@anchor{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth}
This variable defines the maximum depth allowed in calls to @code{eval},
@code{apply}, and @code{funcall} before an error is signaled (with error
message @code{"Lisp nesting exceeds max-lisp-eval-depth"}).

This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is how
Emacs Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function.  If
you increase the value of @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} too much, such
code can cause stack overflow instead.  On some systems, this overflow
can be handled.  In that case, normal Lisp evaluation is interrupted
and control is transferred back to the top level command loop
(@code{top-level}).  Note that there is no way to enter Emacs Lisp
debugger in this situation.  @xref{Error Debugging}.

@cindex Lisp nesting error

The depth limit counts internal uses of @code{eval}, @code{apply}, and
@code{funcall}, such as for calling the functions mentioned in Lisp
expressions, and recursive evaluation of function call arguments and
function body forms, as well as explicit calls in Lisp code.

The default value of this variable is 1600.  If you set it to a value
less than 100, Lisp will reset it to 100 if the given value is
reached.
@end defopt

@defopt lisp-eval-depth-reserve
In order to be able to debug infinite recursion errors, when invoking the
Lisp debugger, Emacs increases temporarily the value of
@code{max-lisp-eval-depth}, if there is little room left, to make sure
the debugger itself has room to execute.  The same happens when
running the handler of a @code{handler-bind}.  @xref{Handling Errors}.

The variable @code{lisp-eval-depth-reserve} bounds the extra depth
that Emacs can add to @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} for those
exceptional circumstances.

The default value of this variable is 200.
@end defopt


@defvar values
The value of this variable is a list of the values returned by all the
expressions that were read, evaluated, and printed from buffers
(including the minibuffer) by the standard Emacs commands which do
this.  (Note that this does @emph{not} include evaluation in
@file{*ielm*} buffers, nor evaluation using @kbd{C-j}, @kbd{C-x C-e},
and similar evaluation commands in @code{lisp-interaction-mode}.)

This variable is obsolete, and will be removed in a future version,
since it constantly enlarges the memory footprint of the Emacs
process.  For that reason, we recommend against using it.

The elements of @code{values} are ordered most recent first.

@example
@group
(setq x 1)
     @result{} 1
@end group
@group
(list 'A (1+ 2) auto-save-default)
     @result{} (A 3 t)
@end group
@group
values
     @result{} ((A 3 t) 1 @dots{})
@end group
@end example

This variable could be useful for referring back to values of forms
recently evaluated.  It is generally a bad idea to print the value of
@code{values} itself, since this may be very long.  Instead, examine
particular elements, like this:

@example
@group
;; @r{Refer to the most recent evaluation result.}
(nth 0 values)
     @result{} (A 3 t)
@end group
@group
;; @r{That put a new element on,}
;;   @r{so all elements move back one.}
(nth 1 values)
     @result{} (A 3 t)
@end group
@group
;; @r{This gets the element that was next-to-most-recent}
;;   @r{before this example.}
(nth 3 values)
     @result{} 1
@end group
@end example
@end defvar

@node Deferred Eval
@section Deferred and Lazy Evaluation

@cindex deferred evaluation
@cindex lazy evaluation


  Sometimes it is useful to delay the evaluation of an expression, for
example if you want to avoid performing a time-consuming calculation
if it turns out that the result is not needed in the future of the
program.  The @file{thunk} library provides the following functions
and macros to support such @dfn{deferred evaluation}:

@cindex thunk
@defmac thunk-delay forms@dots{}
Return a @dfn{thunk} for evaluating the @var{forms}.  A thunk is a
closure (@pxref{Closures}) that inherits the lexical environment of the
@code{thunk-delay} call.  Using this macro requires
@code{lexical-binding}.
@end defmac

@defun thunk-force thunk
Force @var{thunk} to perform the evaluation of the forms specified in
the @code{thunk-delay} that created the thunk.  The result of the
evaluation of the last form is returned.  The @var{thunk} also
``remembers'' that it has been forced: Any further calls of
@code{thunk-force} with the same @var{thunk} will just return the same
result without evaluating the forms again.
@end defun

@defmac thunk-let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
This macro is analogous to @code{let} but creates ``lazy'' variable
bindings.  Any binding has the form @w{@code{(@var{symbol}
@var{value-form})}}.  Unlike @code{let}, the evaluation of any
@var{value-form} is deferred until the binding of the according
@var{symbol} is used for the first time when evaluating the
@var{forms}.  Any @var{value-form} is evaluated at most once.  Using
this macro requires @code{lexical-binding}.
@end defmac

Example:

@example
@group
(defun f (number)
  (thunk-let ((derived-number
              (progn (message "Calculating 1 plus 2 times %d" number)
                     (1+ (* 2 number)))))
    (if (> number 10)
        derived-number
      number)))
@end group

@group
(f 5)
@result{} 5
@end group

@group
(f 12)
@print{} Calculating 1 plus 2 times 12
@result{} 25
@end group

@end example

Because of the special nature of lazily bound variables, it is an error
to set them (e.g.@: with @code{setq}).


@defmac thunk-let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
This is like @code{thunk-let} but any expression in @var{bindings} is allowed
to refer to preceding bindings in this @code{thunk-let*} form.  Using
this macro requires @code{lexical-binding}.
@end defmac

@example
@group
(thunk-let* ((x (prog2 (message "Calculating x...")
                    (+ 1 1)
                  (message "Finished calculating x")))
             (y (prog2 (message "Calculating y...")
                    (+ x 1)
                  (message "Finished calculating y")))
             (z (prog2 (message "Calculating z...")
                    (+ y 1)
                  (message "Finished calculating z")))
             (a (prog2 (message "Calculating a...")
                    (+ z 1)
                  (message "Finished calculating a"))))
  (* z x))

@print{} Calculating z...
@print{} Calculating y...
@print{} Calculating x...
@print{} Finished calculating x
@print{} Finished calculating y
@print{} Finished calculating z
@result{} 8

@end group
@end example

@code{thunk-let} and @code{thunk-let*} use thunks implicitly: their
expansion creates helper symbols and binds them to thunks wrapping the
binding expressions.  All references to the original variables in the
body @var{forms} are then replaced by an expression that calls
@code{thunk-force} with the according helper variable as the argument.
So, any code using @code{thunk-let} or @code{thunk-let*} could be
rewritten to use thunks, but in many cases using these macros results
in nicer code than using thunks explicitly.
